Women's self-employment intentions after global shocks: insights from Egypt and Spain

We compare the self-employment intentions of women from different contexts, namely, Egypt and Spain after two recent incidents of global economic collapse - the 2008 global financial crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic. We draw on occupational choice and human capital theories to better understand how the self-employment intentions of women with different age, perceptual and human capital profiles vary in periods of crisis. Consistent with previous studies, the results suggest that intentions of self-employment vary with the specific perceptual and human capital attributes of women. However, the macroeconomic conditions and the context matter since the findings also show that the factors that drive the self-employment intention of women differ from one global shock to another. Moreover, the impact of each global shock in every context is different. These findings provide new guidance for policymakers by acknowledging the relevance of the heterogeneity of women, economic periods and contexts to the choice of self-employment.

Does the pandemic hamper or boost the necessity for an international language? A survey on English use frequency among Japanese workers

This study aims to reveal the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the necessity of using English as an international language. For this purpose, this study conducted a web survey of Japanese workers, and statistically examined the extent to which the use of English increased or decreased after the outbreak. The findings are as follows. First, although some types of use decreased or increased, the majority did not show substantial changes. Second, the changes in English use were largely influenced by worker factors, such as types of occupation and employment (e.g. it declined typically among sales workers but not among the self-employed and freelancers), the degree of remote working (e.g. not being allowed to work remotely reduced it), and industry (e.g. it declined among workers in accommodation and real estate sectors but increased among public servants). These findings suggest the following implications: (1) non-decline in English use would suggest its resilience as an international language, the necessity of which could endure even in such a global upheaval;and (2) the frequency of using English (and other modes of international communication) is relatively independent of reduced human mobility, but it is largely affected by the economic climate.

La porosité des frontières du travail notarial à l'heure du « distanciel »

Depuis la pandémie de Covid-19, le télétravail s'est généralisé dans des entreprises notariales de proximité jusqu'alors peu concernées. Leurs employés l'ont expérimenté lors du premier confinement, pendant lequel les notaires ont en partie maintenu à distance leur activité. Le dynamisme de ce secteur, sa libéralisation, la dématérialisation des activités et le profil des travailleurs, féminisé et qualifié, ont facilité la généralisation du télétravail sous divers statuts (salarié, intérimaire, indépendant…). Cette pratique s'est répandue au prix d'une porosité croissante des frontières du travail notarial et de stratégies diversifiées de circonscription du temps et de l'espace. Celles-ci varient selon les métiers, offices, statuts, profils socio-démographiques, trajectoires, ressources et conditions de vie des travailleurs concernés, dans un milieu marqué par d'importantes hiérarchisations genrées. La volonté de travailler autrement motive en partie ce choix du travail à distance, mais aussi de formes alternatives d'emploi, voire de sortie de ce secteur.Alternate :Since the Covid-19 pandemic, teleworking has become widespread in notary offices which, as small local businesses, were hardly concerned before. Their employees have experimented it during the first containment, during which notaries have partly maintained their activity at a distance. The dynamism of this sector, its liberalization, the dematerialization of activities and the feminized and qualified profile of workers have facilitated the generalization of telework under various statuses (salaried, temporary, self-employed, etc.). This practice has spread at the cost of an increasing porosity of the boundaries of notarial work and of diversified strategies for circumscribing time and space. These strategies vary according to the professions, offices, status, socio-demographic profiles, trajectories, resources and living conditions of the workers concerned, in an environment marked by significant gender hierarchies. The desire to work differently partly motivates this choice of remote work, but also of alternative forms of employment, or even of leaving this sector.

Disparities in Access to Unemployment Insurance During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Lessons from U.S. and California Claims Data

To what extent did jobless Americans benefit from unemployment insurance (UI) during the COVID-19 pandemic? This article documents geographic disparities in access to UI during 2020. We leverage aggregated and individual-level claims data to perform an integrated analysis across four measures of access to UI. In addition to the traditional UI recipiency rate, we construct rates of application among the unemployed, rates of first payment among applicants, and exhaustion rates among paid claimants. Through correlations across California counties and across states, we show that areas with more disadvantaged residents had less access to UI during the pandemic. Although these disparities are large in magnitude, cross-state analysis suggests that policy can play a salient role in mitigating them.

Pandemic Depression: COVID-19 and the Mental Health of the Self-Employed: ET&P

We investigate the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on self-employed people's mental health. Using representative longitudinal survey data from Germany, we reveal differential effects by gender: whereas self-employed women experienced a substantial deterioration in their mental health, self-employed men displayed no significant changes up to early 2021. Financial losses are important in explaining these differences. In addition, we find larger mental health responses among self-employed women who were directly affected by government-imposed restrictions and bore an increased childcare burden due to school and daycare closures. We also find that self-employed individuals who are more resilient coped better with the crisis.

German financial state aid during Covid-19 pandemic: Higher impact among digitalized self-employed

In response to strong revenue and income losses facing a large share of self-employed individuals during the COVID-19 pandemic, the German federal government introduced a €50bn emergency-aid program. Based on real-time online-survey data comprising more than 20,000 observations, we analyze the impact of this program on the confidence to survive the crisis. We investigate how the digitalization level of self-employed individuals influences the program's effectiveness. Employing propensity score matching, we find that the emergency-aid program had only moderately positive effects on the confidence of self-employed to survive the crisis. However, self-employed whose businesses were highly digitalized, benefitted much more from the state aid than those whose businesses were less digitalized. This only holds true for those self-employed, who started the digitalization processes already before the crisis. Taking a regional perspective, we find suggestive evidence that the quality of the regional broadband infrastructure matters in the sense that it increases the effectiveness of the emergency-aid program. Our findings show the interplay between governmental support programs, the digitalization levels of entrepreneurs, and the regional digital infrastructure. The study helps public policy to improve the impact of crisis-related policy instruments, ultimately increasing the resilience of small firms in times of crises. © 2023 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group.

Effects of Spatial Characteristics on Non-Standard Employment for Canada's Immigrant Population

Using microdata from Statistics Canada's Labour Force Survey (LFS) and Population Census, this paper explores how spatial characteristics are correlated with temporary employment outcomes for Canada's immigrant population. Results from ordinary least square regression models suggest that census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations (CMAs/CAs) characterized by a high share of racialized immigrants, immigrants in low-income, young, aged immigrants, unemployed immigrants, and immigrants employed in health and service occupations were positively associated with an increase in temporary employment for immigrants. Furthermore, findings from principal component regression models revealed that a combination of spatial characteristics, namely CMAs/CAs characterized by both a high share of unemployed immigrants and immigrants in poverty, had a greater likelihood of immigrants being employed temporarily. The significance of this study lies in the spatial conceptualization of temporary employment for immigrants that could better inform spatially targeted employment policies, especially in the wake of the structural shift in the nature of work brought about by the COVID-19 pandemic.

The reform of social protection in Morocco following the coronavirus pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic has affirmed the importance of social protection. To combat the effects of the pandemic, countries have taken exceptional measures to preserve health and have introduced or adapted measures to provide income support to people who have lost their sources of income. The pandemic has also highlighted the weaknesses of the social protection system in Morocco, introduced in 1940, which is composed of a contributory system whose financing depends on social security contributions and regulations, and a subsidiary system which takes into covers people who do not have access to contributory basic social insurance. The kick-off for the implementation of the social protection reform in Morocco was given in April 2021 and should be spread over five years. The objective of this reform is to reorganize and improve the operation of the various social protection instruments with a view to greater effectiveness and increased efficiency and also to create new components likely to extend coverage. This large-scale reform initiated by Morocco requires an annual envelope estimated at 51 billion dirhams, which constitutes a major challenge for the country's public finances, which have been hit by the COVID-19 crisis.

Entrepreneurial efforts and opportunity costs: evidence from twitch streamers

With the rise of digital platforms, individuals' possibilities to generate income have increased drastically. In this context, we present digital content creation as a form of (digital) entrepreneurship that is characterized by potentially high but also uncertain revenues. As the cost structure of content creation mostly depends on opportunity costs, it stands in contrast to other popular platform-work options. We demonstrate how a stark and unexpected reduction in opportunity costs affects the actual decision to produce digital content. Exploiting the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, we measure how individuals (streamers) who operate on a live streaming platform, respond to a sudden change in external factors while accounting for individual differences in initial conditions. We observe intensified efforts across the spectrum of streamers and find particularly strong reactions from newcomer streamers. We further show that only the most successful newcomers sustain their increased efforts even when opportunity costs start to rise again. Our results are consistent with the initial assumption that an individual's decision on taking up or intensifying entrepreneurial efforts on digital platforms is strongly affected by their opportunity costs. The results further imply that there is a large potential in individuals who might be willing to become entrepreneurs but are restricted by external conditions. As platform-based digital entrepreneurship offers high flexibility and very low entry barriers, measures for lowering opportunity costs could therefore help to unleash this potential. To maintain a steady influx of new talents, content platforms should increase their support for smaller creators and policymakers should provide easily accessible platforms to ease the way into entrepreneurship for these individuals. © 2023, The Author(s).

Were small businesses more likely to permanently close in the pandemic?

Previous estimates indicate that COVID-19 led to a large drop in the number of operating businesses operating early in the pandemic, but surprisingly little is known on whether these shutdowns turned into permanent closures and whether small businesses were disproportionately hit. This paper provides the first analysis of permanent business closures using confidential administrative firm-level panel data covering the universe of businesses filing sales taxes from the California Department of Tax and Fee Administration. We find large increases in closure rates in the first two quarters of 2020, but a strong reversal of this trend in the third quarter of 2020. The increase in closures rates in the first two quarters of the pandemic was substantially larger for small businesses than large businesses, but the rebound in the third quarter was also larger. The disproportionate closing of small businesses led to a sharp concentration of market share among larger businesses as indicated by the Herfindahl–Hirschman Index with only a partial reversal after the initial increase. The findings highlight the fragility of small businesses during a large adverse shock and the consequences for the competitiveness of markets.Plain English SummarySmall businesses were more likely to close permanently during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic than large businesses. Although they rebounded strongly thereafter, market concentration remains higher than before the pandemic. We obtain these results from analyzing administrative firm-level data covering all businesses filing sales taxes in California. Our analysis contributes to research by demonstrating the fragility of small businesses during a crisis relative to large businesses. Our findings imply that small businesses may need additional support given the trend toward purchases from large online retailers.

Improved Framework Conditions for a More Entrepreneurial, Innovative and Resilient EU

In the wake of the Covid-19 crisis, the European Union must regain lost ground and create more favorable conditions for inclusive and sustainable economic growth. The best way to achieve this goal is by increasing the Union's innovativeness. This effort requires extensive and broad-based institutional reforms aimed at strengthening the incentives for entrepreneurship. Innovative entrepreneurship requires collaborations with numerous agents that provide those skills and resources that the entrepreneur is lacking: inventors, key personnel, demanding customers, and early and later-stage financiers. Based on this ecosystem perspective, we propose reforms in the following six broad areas: (i) the rule of law and property rights, (ii) taxation, (iii) savings and finance, (iv) labor market regulations and social security, (v) entry and exit barriers in product markets, and (vi) human capital for entrepreneurship. The reforms would likely strengthen Europe's innovation capacity at a time when it is needed more than ever. © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022, corrected publication 2022.

Socio-economic and demographic determinants of COVID-19 infections and spread at household level: case study from Nigeria

Many studies have associated the dynamics of diseases' prevalence with differences in social, economic and demographic status, but it is not yet clear if the same variables explain the spatial distribution of COVID-19 infections in parts of sub-Saharan Africa. This study assessed the spatial spread of COVID-19 infections in relation to socio-demographic risk factors in a typical administrative state – a relatively typical ethnocentric community – in Southwestern Nigeria. Data used were socio-demographics, income variables, COVID-19 status and travel history of 40,300 households. Data were analysed for frequency, prevalence and spatial distributions. The results revealed that COVID-19 cases were heterogeneously distributed within the state. The number of cases was relatively higher in the north and south-eastern parts of the State than in other areas. Male respondents had a higher prevalence (3.7%) of COVID-19 cases compared to their female (2.4%) counterparts. Transmission was most dominant among respondents aged above 70 years old (3.5%), widowed (3.3%) and those who lived in households with between 6 and 10 (4.9%) members. Transmission was also relatively high among those with travel history within the State (9.1%), those that aquired tertiary education (3.8%) and self-employed (3.0%). The study associated imbalanced socio-economic distributions to a diverse range of COVID-19 transmission in the area and therefore advocated for improved policy on residents' education and sustainable living.

Financial Well-Being and Financial Capability among Low-Income Entrepreneurs

Financial well-being is a key component of quality of life and overall well-being and is likely to affect other aspects of quality of life, such as health and health care. The COVID-19 pandemic presents an immense crisis of financial well-being among low-income entrepreneurs and has left many small-scale entrepreneurs financially fragile. We argue that promoting the financial capability of low-income entrepreneurs is effective in protecting their financial well-being from a crisis. To examine the association between financial capability and the financial well-being of low-income entrepreneurs, we use the 2016 National Financial Well-Being Survey, which provides the latest and comprehensive measurement of financial capability, including financial knowledge, financial skills, and access to financial products and services. Our analyses show that, compared to their higher-income counterparts, low-income entrepreneurs have statistically lower levels of financial well-being, financial knowledge, financial skills, and access to mainstream financial products;they also have a statistically higher risk of using high-fee alternative financial products. In addition, low-income entrepreneurs have larger barriers to accessing mainstream financial products than low-income non-entrepreneurs. The results indicate that financial capability plays a significant role in promoting the financial well-being of low-income entrepreneurs. © 2023 by the authors.

ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF COVID-19 ON WOMEN HOME-BASED WORKERS IN RURAL PAKISTAN: THE NARRATIVES OF SURVIVAL

Globally, a large number of people work in the informal economy under vulnerable conditions. This study examines the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on women home-based workers (HBWs) in Sindh, Pakistan. A total of 45 women HBWs were interviewed to assess the effects of the pandemic on their livelihoods. The results show that both men and women in the family lost their work during the lockdown which created a severe economic crisis. Due to limited literacy and lack of training, women HBWs were unable to use online platforms for selling their products. Thus, many women remained without work for several months which affected their livelihoods. The study highlights the role of extended family and close kin ties during the economic crisis. Based on the findings, we suggest introducing a well-integrated social protection system and implementing Sindh Home-based Workers Act 2018 immediately so to ensure the welfare of workers, particularly during a catastrophe.

Sociodemographic Factors of Depression During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Malaysia: the COVID-19 Mental Health International Study

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of depression and the sociodemographic factors associated with depression in Malaysia during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methods: This study is part of the COVID-19 Mental Health International Study to collect data on the impact of the pandemic on mental health through an online survey. People who were aged ≥18 years, able to read Malay or English, had access to the internet, and consented to participate were asked to complete a pro forma questionnaire to collect their sociodemographic data. The presence of distress and depression was assessed using the English or Malay version of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale. Results: Of 963 participants, 451 (46.8%) had depression and 512 (53.2%) had no depression who were either normal (n = 169, 17.5%) or had distress (n = 343, 35.6%). Participants had higher odds of having depression when living with two people (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 3.896, p = 0.001), three people (AOR = 2.622, p < 0.001) or four people (AOR = 3.135, p < 0.001). Participants with three children had higher odds of having depression (AOR = 2.084, p = 0.008), whereas having only one child was a protective factor for depression (AOR = 0.481, p = 0.01). Participants had higher odds of having depression when self-employed (AOR = 3.825, p = 0.003), retired (AOR = 4.526, p = 0.001), being housekeeper (AOR = 7.478, p = 0.004), not working by choice (AOR = 5.511, p < 0.001), or unemployed (AOR = 3.883, p = 0.009). Participants had higher odds of depression when living in a small town (AOR = 3.193, p < 0.001) or rural area (AOR = 3.467, p < 0.001). Participants with no chronic medical illness had lower odds of having depression (AOR = 0.589, p = 0.008). Conclusion: In Malaysia during the COVID-19 pandemic, people who are living with two, three, or four people, having three children, living in a small town or rural areas, and having unstable income have higher odds of having depression. Urgent intervention for those at risk of depression is recommended. Key words: COVID-19;Depression;Malaysia;Sociodemographic factors

Entrepreneurial Intention of Unemployed People and the Need for Training and Financial Support for Self-Employed Workers in Times of COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic caused a severe economic crisis that has led to instability in the labor market. Some workers fell into unemployment and self-employed workers had to face a partial or total stoppage of their activities. This paper aims to study the entrepreneurial intention of unemployed people and the need for training and financial support of self-employed workers. To do so, Probit models are estimated using a survey with workers in Ecuador. The results show that the underlying characteristics that motivate entrepreneurial intention differ across existent unemployed people and people who became unemployed during the COVID-19 lockdown. Women who became unemployed during the COVID-19 lockdown are more likely to have entrepreneurial intentions than men. Less educated existent unemployed people are more likely to have entrepreneurial intentions than more educated ones. People who need financial support also need training support and vice versa. The level of the effects of COVID-19 on economic sectors has a relevant effect on the need for financial support. © 2023,Revista Portuguesa de Estudos Regionais. All Rights Reserved.

LEGAL STATUS OF PERSONS PERFORMING WORK THROUGH INTERNET PLATFORMS – IN SEARCH OF A MODEL OF PROTECTION

The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted numerous problems regarding the legal protection of persons performing work via online platforms, resulting, inter alia, from the formal qualification of these workers as self-employed by the platforms. The lack of job stability, protection in terms of salary, social protection or even safe and healthy working conditions caused a wave of protests in many European countries and resulted in rich jurisprudence defining the criteria of determining the legal status of persons performing work via online platforms. It also prompted the EU legislator to improve the working conditions of this group of workers, as evidenced by the draft of the EU directive on the improvement of working conditions through online platforms published in December 2021. The aim of this study is to present the legal dilemmas related to the determination of the legal status of persons providing work via online platforms with reference to the jurisprudence of selected European countries and the solutions proposed by the European Commission. A critical assessment of the proposed regulations leads to a reflection on the appropriate model of protection for these persons, beyond the dichotomous division into employee and non-employee status. © Lodz University Press. All rights reserved.

Being doubly disadvantaged or escaping gender discrimination?: female self-employment in Japan and their responses to the COVID-19 crisis

This study focuses on female self-employed workers in Japan, evaluating their position in the labour market and access to social protection. It also investigates the impact of the COVID-19 crisis and their responses to it. We find that female self-employed workers are in a better position than female employees working on non-standard contracts, with less gender disparity. However, they lack social protection against sudden income loss, which caused them more serious damage during the COVID-19 crisis. Although the segment is relatively free from gender discrimination, it cannot escape the gender biases embedded in the social security system.

Closing the gap in public policy support for immigrant entrepreneurs

The relative number of immigrant entrepreneurs has increased across OECD countries over the past 20 years. This can be illustrated by looking at regions such as the European Union, where the share of immigrants among the self-employed nearly doubled over the past decade, increasing from 6% in 2011 to 11 per cent in 2020 (OECD/EU, 2021). This growth is even greater in countries that have a high proportion of foreign workers such as Luxembourg. The overall growth in immigrant entrepreneurship is largely due to an increase in global immigration flows. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, worldwide migration flows were trending upwards and OECD countries were increasing the destination for migrants. Immigration flows increased by about 50 per cent since 2011 across OECD countries, which was nearly double the global average for this period (United Nations, 2020).

Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic on the Socioeconomic Characteristics of Freelancers

The study analyzes the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the work activities of freelancers and the self-employed. The study is based on a conducted survey. A total of 1,157 respondents participated in the survey. The sample subjected to statistical analysis is N=469 people. The employed research methods include correlation and one-factor analysis of variance, as well as text analysis. The textual analysis method is used in determining the reasons behind an unwillingness to register as self-employed. Correlation analysis is used in assessing the impact of the pandemic on income and customer demand. Analysis of variance is deployed to compare subsamples of current freelancers and former freelancers. Analogies are drawn between the current findings and those of other researchers. The results of the study indicate that the main advantage of freelance work is the free schedule (83% of the respondents). Another appeal of freelancing is the lack of the need to go to the office (70%), the freedom to choose orders and customers (68%). Among the negative characteristics of freelancing is the instability of income (67%). In view of the freelancers themselves, the COVID-19 pandemic has had no major influence on their work. Specifically, 40% report that COVID-19 has not affected their work in any way.